The Death of Newspapers free essay sample

Since the turn of the new century, newspapers have always been the main source of our news. For years, it started the day for millions. Along with a cup of coffee, maybe even some breakfast, the arrival of the morning paper meant the beginning to the daily grind. Nowadays the evening paper is long extinct, especially in large cities. With Internet so available to the masses and, for the most part, providing free news, the newspaper is no longer a necessity. The newspaper becoming extinct is beneficial because it is more environmentally friendly, is more of a convenience, and has given voice to countless talented people who would otherwise have no platform. Lets take a look at the newspaper from an environmental point of view. Nearly four billion trees worldwide are cut down annually for paper alone, representing about thirty-five percent of all harvested trees (Lukenbill 1). Each person alone in the United States uses almost eight hundred pounds of paper per year that adds up to almost two hundred billion pounds per year for our entire population. We will write a custom essay sample on The Death of Newspapers or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page World paper consumption has grown four hundred percent in the last forty years. With the newspaper industry consuming almost ten percent of all trees the downfall of newspapers would be very environmentally friendly (Lukenbill 2). The United States Toxic Release Inventory Report released by the EPA states that pulp and paper mills are among the worst polluters to air, water, and land of any industry in the country. Not only do the mills pollute but also distributing all the newspaper copies to newsstands and homes, then trucking them back to recycling center or landfills creates even more. The end result, according to a 2006 report, sates newspaper sales account for almost sixteen percent of all carbon emissions (Koerner 1). Not only does the downfall of newspapers save trees but also creates less pollution. Some may try to argue the fact that the servers and desktops used to make online newspapers possible are on par with the pollution newspapers create. This would be true only if over sixty-five percent of all newspapers were recycled. Close to forty percent of newsprint comes from recycled material making this counterargument fictional (Koerner 1). This isn’t just about pollution, though, and we know it. Our world today is about convenience. The sooner and the cheaper we can access anything, the better. Nowadays things are faster paced and people just don’t have the time or luxury to read over the newspaper. The number of people employed by the industry fell by eighteen percent between 1990 and 2004 (Weeks 1). The Internet provides outlets for anyone with an opinion, and the ability to have a voice is very attractive. Blogging has also become a huge hit on the web scene, and with it, more opinions, leading readers to question authority and other â€Å"facts† of media. Most large-circulations papers have created strong websites. With advertising dollars providing more revenue, these online versions of the paper can attain extra readers, generate more talk, and lead to more hits and higher numbers. Young teenagers now don’t even remember a time without the Internet, and reading a newspaper would be something unheard of. Going through a newspaper, while trying to find a relevant topic and ending up with ink all over your hands is much less appealing than typing in what you’re trying to find in a search engine and getting a thousand hits in less than a second. Also with the Internet there are websites such as Craig’s List or EBay arising, there is no longer a need to pay for an add in the newspaper when you can sell your item for free. We need to stop holding onto the past and let ourselves evolve into a more technological generation. So far, the Internet media revolution has been a huge net plus for journalism and blogging. It has greatly increased the quantity and even the quality of available opinion and news. Trying to figure out the truth of a given subject means reading about it from as many perspectives as possible, and now with the Internet there are more perspectives accessible. The Internet has given voice to countless talented and informed people who would of otherwise have no platform. It has created a surplus of bloggers who provide fact checking and criticism of the press, and provides powerful counterarguments to many respectable medias (Kamiya 1). Bloggers are often valuable reporters. Some bloggers have done significant research, reporting, and even digging through documents to unearth secrets. The newspaper has not always done a sufficient job of capturing reality. Too often hidden corporations and agendas have driven it. The press’s failure to question the Bush administration’s case for war in Iraq is the most glaring recent example (Kamiya 1). With the Internet we are able to address these problems as a whole instead of separate corporations controlling our media. What appears in the newspapers is a result of editorial whim and financial pressures. This limited information is preferable to only a few self-selected individuals. The Internet allows people to vent their opinions and always expand on a certain topic. Some may argue that in a newspaper it is much easier to consume unfamiliar information than on the Internet, and it stimulates parts of our brain that would otherwise atrophy. The physical layout of a newspaper does make it easier to consume unfamiliar information, however online media is created to respond to our desires. We want our information precise and quick and the Internet provides this for us. There has also been the statement that if newspaper reporting dies out, the global consequences would be dire. Little things would go under the radar; regimes would feel free to commit crime without consequences (Gapper 1). This is not true though, major reporting companies working for websites on the Internet such as Yahoo, CNN, or even FOX News have coverage of almost more than the newspaper. The Internet gives readers what they need; newspapers are just redundant and wasteful. With the Internet becoming faster and more powerful every day the newspaper is beginning to decline in profit. Internet is now provided to the masses; almost all news can be accessed for free. This is beneficial because it is more environmentally friendly, is more of a convenience, and given voice to countless talented people who would otherwise have no platform. We need to stop holding onto the past, newspapers have died out and we need to embrace our new forms of media.

Essay Writing Tips - Use a Short Argumentative Essay Sample As a Written Argument

Essay Writing Tips - Use a Short Argumentative Essay Sample As a Written ArgumentA short argumentative essay is best for a student with a weak command of English grammar. This type of essay requires more proofreading and editing to make it sound logical. When writing a college essay, writing a short argumentative essay may be the easiest way to be accepted. Even if you do not have a degree in English, a short argumentative essay sample is a good thing to work on in your efforts to become an academic.Writing a persuasive essay requires a good grasp of grammar, syntax, and sentence structure. Writing a persuasive essay requires being able to write well. If you are not a good writer, it will probably take you a long time to write one.An argumentative essay can be a great way to make a statement. The essay must contain evidence to support your point. For example, if you wanted to prove that a particular product was a good one, you would have to provide evidence to back up your claim. You could, for example, show that a person in your family had successfully used the product, or that the company had a good reputation for the product.If you want to use your argumentative essay as a test, then you need to make sure that you use the proper keywords. You should also be able to list the points you want to make in your argument. Do not be too hard on yourself when you make mistakes. People will usually forgive you if you admit that you were wrong. When you make a mistake, explain how it happened and why you made the mistake.When writing an argumentative essay, there are a few tips that you can follow. Always use your favorite word. Other tips are: use appropriate capitalization, avoid backspacing, and avoid self-referential statements. Use paragraphs to help connect the points you are making. If the idea is not very compelling, don't spend a lot of time on it.Essay writing is an art, and one cannot always predict what works best. However, if you are trying to convince som eone to listen to you, then you should try and stick to a certain style of essay. If you want to make a point, or just to show them you are able to write, a persuasive essay sample is a good idea.Keep in mind that an essay is a 'story' - it has paragraphs, and you need to consider the paragraphs when you write an essay. There are many types of essays available, including argumentative essay, factual essay, and critical essay. All of these types of essays are very different, but there are similarities among them all.

Comparative Essays

Comparative Essays Comparative Essay Comparative Essay Comparative Essay BY alexa1724 What is a comparative essay? A comparative essay asks that you compare at least two (possibly more) items. These items will differ depending on the assignment. You might be asked to compare positions on an issue (e. g. , responses to midwifery in Canada and the United States) theories (e. g. , capitalism and communism) figures (e. g. , GDP in the United States and Britain) texts (e. g. , Shakespeares Hamletand Macbeth) events (e. g. the Great Depression and the global financial crisis of 2008-9) Although the assignment may say compare, the assumption is that you will consider both the imilarities and differences; in other words, you will compare and contrast. Make sure you know the basis for comparison The assignment sheet may say exactly what you need to compare, or it may ask you to come up with a basis for comparison yourself. Provided by the essay question: The essay question may ask that you consider the figure of the gentle man in Charles Dickenss Great Expectations and Anne Brontes The Tenant of Wildfell Hall. The basis for comparison will be the fgure of the gentleman. Developed by you: The question may simply ask that you compare the two novels. If so, you will need to develop a basis for comparison, that is, a theme, concern, or device common to both works from which you can draw similarities and differences. Develop a list of similarities and differences Once you know your basis for comparison, think critically about the similarities and differences between the items you are comparing, and compile a list of them. For example, you might decide that in Great Expectations, being a true gentleman is not a matter of manners or position but morality, whereas in The Tenant of Wildfell Hall, being a true gentleman is not about luxury and self-indulgence but hard work nd productivity. The list you have generated is not yet your outline for the essay, but it should provide you with enough similarities and differences to construct an initial plan. Develop a thesis based on the relative weight of similarities and differences Once you have listed similarities and differences, decide whether the similarities on the whole outweigh the differences or vice versa. Create a thesis statement that reflects their relative weights. A more complex thesis will usually include both similarities and differences. Here are examples o t the two main cases: Differences outweigh similarities: While Callaghans All the Years of Her Life and Mistrys Of White Hairs and Cricket both follow the conventions of the coming-of-age narrative, Callaghans story adheres more closely to these conventions by allowing its central protagonist to mature. In Mistrys story, by contrast, no real growth occurs. Similarities outweigh differences: Although Darwin and Lamarck came to different conclusions about whether acquired traits can be inherited, they shared the key distinction of recognizing that species evolve over time. Come up with a structure for your essay Alternating method: Point-by-point pattern In the alternating method, you find related points common to your central subjects A and B, and alternate between A and B on the basis of these points (ABABAB . For instance, a comparative essay on the French and Russian revolutions might examine how both revolutions either encouraged or thwarted innovation in terms of new technology, military strategy, and the administrative system. A Paragraph 1 in body new technology and the French Revolution BParagraph 2 in body new technology and the Russian Revolution A Paragraph 3 in body military strategy and the French Revolution B Paragraph 4 in body military strategy and the Russian Revolution A Paragraph 5 in body administrative system and the French Revolution B Paragraph 6 in body administrative system and the Russian Revolution Note that the French and Russian revolutions (A and B) may be dissimilar rather than similar in the way they affected innovation in any of the three areas of technology, military strategy, and administration. To use the alternating method, you Just need to have something noteworthy to say about both A and B in each area. Finally, you may certainly include more than three pairs of alternating points: allow the subject matter o determine the number of points you choose to develop in the body of your essay. When do I use the alternating method? Professors often like the alternating system because it generally does a better Job of highlighting similarities and differences by Juxtaposing your points about A and B. It also tends to produce a more tightly integrated and analytical paper. Consider the alternating method if you are able to identify clearly related points between A and B. Otherwise, if you attempt to impose the alternating method, you will probably find it counterproductive. Block meth d Subject-by-subject pattern In the block method (AS), you discuss all of A, then all of B. For example, a comparative essay using the block method on the French and Russian revolutions would address the French Revolution in the first half of the essay and the Russian Revolution in the second half. If you choose the block method, however, do not simply append two disconnected essays to an introductory thesis. The B block, or second half of your essay, should refer to the A block, or first half, and make clear points of comparison whenever comparisons are relevant. (Unlike A, B .. or Like A, B .. This technique will allow for a higher level of critical engagement, continuity, and cohesion. A Paragraphs 1-3 in body How the French Revolution encouraged or thwarted innovation B Paragraphs 4-6 in body How the Russian Revolution encouraged or thwarted innovation When do I use the block method? The block method is particularly useful in the following cases: You are unable to find points about A and B that are closely related to each other. Your ideas about B build upon or extend your ideas about A. You are comparing three or more subjects as opposed to the traditional two.

History and Invention of Gasoline

History and Invention of Gasoline Gasoline was not invented, it is a natural by-product of the petroleum industry, kerosene being the principal product. Gasoline is produced by distillation, the separating of the volatile, more valuable fractions of crude petroleum. However, what was invented were the numerous processes and agents needed to improve the quality of gasoline making it a better commodity. The Automobile When the history of the automobile was heading in the direction of becoming the number one method of transportation. There was created a need for new fuels. In the ​nineteenth century, coal, gas, camphene, and kerosene made from petroleum were being used as fuels and in lamps. However, automobile engines required fuels that needed petroleum as a raw material. Refineries could not convert crude oil into gasoline fast enough as automobiles were rolling off the ​assembly line. Cracking There was a need for improvement in the refining process for fuels that would prevent engine knocking and increase engine efficiency. Especially for the new high compression automobile engines that were being designed. The processes that were invented to improve the yield of gasoline from crude oil were known as cracking. In petroleum refining, cracking is a process by which heavy hydrocarbon molecules are broken up into lighter molecules by means of heat, pressure, and sometimes catalysts. Thermal Cracking: William Meriam Burton Cracking is the number one process for the commercial production of gasoline. In 1913, thermal cracking was invented by William Meriam Burton, a process that employed heat and high pressures. Catalytic Cracking Eventually, catalytic cracking replaced thermal cracking in gasoline production. Catalytic cracking is the application of catalysts that create chemical reactions, producing more gasoline. The catalytic cracking process was invented by Eugene Houdry in 1937. Additional Processes Other methods used to improve the quality of gasoline and increase its supply including: Polymerization: converting gaseous olefins, such as propylene and butylene, into larger molecules in the gasoline rangeAlkylation: a process combining an olefin and paraffin such as isobutaneIsomerization: the conversion of straight-chain hydrocarbons to branched-chain hydrocarbonsReforming: using either heat or a catalyst to rearrange a molecular structure Timeline of Gasoline and Fuel Improvements 19th-century  fuels for the automobile were coal tar distillates and the lighter fractions from the distillation of crude oil.On September 5, 1885, the first gasoline pump was manufactured by Sylvanus Bowser of Fort Wayne, Indiana and delivered to Jake Gumper, also of Fort Wayne. The gasoline pump tank had marble valves and wooden plungers and had a capacity of one barrel.On September 6, 1892, the first gasoline-powered tractor, manufactured by John Froelich of Iowa, was shipped to Langford, South Dakota, where it was employed in threshing for approximately 2 months. It had a vertical single-cylinder gasoline engine mounted on wooden beams and drove a J. I. Case threshing machine. Froelich formed the Waterloo Gasoline Tractor Engine Company, which was later acquired by the John Deere Plow Company.On June 11, 1895, the first U.S. patent for a gasoline-powered automobile was issued to  Charles Duryea  of Springfield, Massachusetts.By the early  20th century, the oil companies w ere producing gasoline as a simple distillate from petroleum. During the 1910s, laws prohibited the storage of gasoline on residential properties.On January 7, 1913, William Meriam Burton received a patent for his cracking process to convert oil to gasoline.On January 1, 1918, the first U.S. gasoline pipeline began transporting gasoline through a  three-inch  pipe over 40 miles from Salt Creek to Casper, Wyoming.Charles Kettering  modified an internal combustion engine to run on kerosene. However,  kerosene-fueled  engine knocked and would crack the cylinder head and pistons.Thomas Midgley Jr.  discovered that the cause of the knocking was from the kerosene droplets vaporizing on combustion. Anti-knock agents were researched by Midgley, culminating in tetraethyl lead being added to fuel.On February 2, 1923, for the first time in U.S. history ethyl gasoline was marketed. This took place in Dayton, Ohio.In 1923, Almer McDuffie McAfee developed the petroleum industrys first commercially viable catalytic cracking process, a method that could double or even triple the gasoline yielded from crude oil  by then-standard  distillation methods. By the mid-1920s, gasoline  was  40 to 60 Octane.By the 1930s, the petroleum industry stopped using kerosene.Eugene Houdry invented the catalytic cracking of low-grade fuel into high test gasoline in 1937.During the 1950s, the increase of the compression ratio and higher octane fuels occurred. Lead levels increased and new refining processes (hydrocracking) began.In 1960, Charles Plank and Edward Rosinski patented (U.S. #3,140,249) the first zeolite catalyst commercially useful in the petroleum industry for catalytic cracking of petroleum into lighter products such as gasoline.In the 1970s, unleaded fuels were introduced.From 1970 until 1990 lead was phased out.In 1990, the Clean Air Act created major changes on gasoline, rightfully intended to eliminate pollution.

Mergers and Acquisitions of Vodafone Research Paper

Mergers and Acquisitions of Vodafone - Research Paper Example Verizon Wireless, which had been a part of Vodafone Plc., was growing very fast, and Vodafone wanted to dispose of its assets in the United States and focus on Europe. Vodafone had not had much success with Verizon Wireless compared to its other subsidiaries in Europe and Africa. As a result, it identified Verizon Wireless as a possible obstacle to its expansion in Europe and Africa. On the other hand, Verizon Communications – the parent company of Verizon Wireless, wanted to solidify its presence in the US market after making several acquisitions in the past years. It should also be noted that Verizon Communications previously owned Vodafone Italy that was part of an agreement they had signed previously. Vodafone wanted to buy back Vodafone Italy so that it could shore up its operations in Europe while Verizon Communications wanted to solidify its presence in the US market. Out of all the motivations for this acquisition, the two core ones were Vodafone’s need to exit the US market and Verizon’s need to expand. The result was the acquisition. The positive impacts of the deal were far-reaching. Vodafone shareholders received cash payments as a result of the deal, and this boosted investor confidence in the company. Vodafone’s shareholders received large payouts and after this deal was more likely to stick with the company than ever before. On the other hand, Verizon’s shareholders were in line to receive increments in dividend income and possible increments in the company’s stock.

Revision of Responding to Pop Culture Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Revision of Responding to Pop Culture - Essay Example Perhaps this twist in â€Å"Chuck† made the TV series a standout from the other series of similar genre because it reached Season 5 which is quite unusual for a spy genre. There is nothing heavy in its dialogue which an average Joe will not understand which explains why the Chuck flick became a hit with the general audience. Agent Walker, Chuck’s love interest also kept the audience glued to their screen as their romance unfolds in the secretive world of espionage. Just do not delve too much on how logical the circumstances of the Chuck series are because you will just be disappointed. The main entertainment factor of this flick is not the soundness of its logic just like CSI series. Chuck only intends to amuse its audience so it did put much emphasis on the logical sequencing of the film. Given this, do not wonder how could have it been possible to build a CIA headquarter beneath Nerd Herd without being notice because it is one of the givens that the film does not intend to explain. This disconnect however does not seem to be an issue with the audience evident with its high ratings and subsequent episodes. The flick only intends to entertain by bringing down the spy culture to the understanding of the masses. It appeals to our subliminal desires of living an action packed and adventurous life such that of a spy by removing the idea that this job is unattainable given the requirements imposed by other spy genre. In Chuck’s world, as long as you are in the right place and in the right time, you could be the â€Å"Intersect† who is the most valuable asset in the espionage world with a bonus of having girl that is way out of your league. If this TV series will be translated into a game just like other spy films, â€Å"Chuck† will prove to be interesting as those secrets imbedded in his brain can provide a wide assortment of possibilities of what the character can do in a lot of

Oral Health And Disease Health And Social Care Essay

Oral Health And Disease Health And Social Care Essay Dental caries is an oral disease not just of the developed nations but fast becoming a public health issues in the developing countries1. Dental caries is one of the major oral health problems in Nigeria. Other oral health/diseases commonly seen in Nigeria include periodontitis, chronic gingivitis, acute necrotising gingivitis, oral cancer and ameloblastoma, cranio-facial developmental anomalies, orthodontic problems and cleft lip and palate2. The oral cavity though small is a important aspect of the human body. It is the gateway to the human digestive system. The teeth are an important part of the mouth. Their function in mastication of food and speech cannot be over emphasized. They also have aesthetic component as well as enhance facial appearance. Thus, any problem with oral health or diseases could present as pain and suffering which could have debilitating effects on individuals in particular and the community at large3. Oral diseases could lead to reduction in functional abili ties and reduced quality of life. According to Petersen (2004) oral conditions are among the most expensive medical treatments in industrialized nations3. Nigeria is classed as one of the poorest countries in the world with 70% of its population leaving below 1 dollar a day. Nigeria is one of the countries in West Africa, comprises of 36 states. She is one of the most populous countries in Africa as well as the eighth most populous country in the world with the population of 154,728 8924 and popularly known as the giant of Africa. In 2007 to date, Nigeria is ranked as the second largest economy in Africa, she is known for her rich cultures, natural endowment such as oil and gas. It is equally indisputable that her human resources are abundant. At the same, it is absurd to learn that about 70.2% of Nigerians are living in abject poverty. Although, the Health services in Nigeria has undergone transformation over the years. The provision of Nigeria health system can be categorized into Public and Private Health services. The public health services serves as the main backbone of Nigeria health care which in most cases is funded by the government on non-profit bases. These are divided structurally into the Primary Health Care (PHC), Secondary Health Care (SHC ) and the Tertiary Heath Care (THC) 5, 6. But the dental care services are provided from secondary to tertiary care. This is due to the fact that dental care services are available in general hospitals (secondary health care) in some states and not at the primary health care bases, also in various teaching hospitals (tertiary health care) as well as private dental services. Dental caries is known as a progressive destruction or demineralization of enamel, dentine and cementum on a susceptible tooth surface caused by microbial (Streptococcus mutans) activities such as the production of acids.7, 8 In most cases, the dental caries is not life threatening but can have an adverse effect on quality of life in individual childhood to old age such as dietary and health. It affects all age groups and it is the most important cause of tooth loss in young people9. Frequent consumption of sugar and sugary food and drinks has been implicated as predisposing factors for the cause of dental caries9, 10,11. The sequelae of dental caries: Bacteria ferment sugar to produce acid. Acid dissolves tooth surface  ® leads to dental caries which affects the enamel  ® dentine  ® pulp  ® pulpitis  ® periapical infection  ® dental abscess12. Years ago, dental caries is one of the most common diseases in industrialised countries for instance United Kingdom and a social class-related condition. There has been a tremendous increase of dental caries in developing countries in recent years due to increased sugar consumption as well as insufficient exposures to fluorides which Nigeria happened to be one of the countries. In Nigeria, DMF index is used in measuring tooth decays which counts the number of decayed, missing or filled teeth (DMFT) or surfaces (DMFS) in patients mouth as a result of caries both in deciduous and permanent dentition7, 8. In 1993, World Bank reported the dental caries incidence in 1990 among females of Sub-Saharan Africa is 0. 7 and the males is also 0.7 while the total world record in these categories are 9.6 and 9.8 repectively.13 Dental caries prevalence in Nigeria varies according to the areas from the studies Akpata carried out. It shows that dental caries in rural areas are very low of 3 dental ca ries cases compared with those in the urban areas which is 33 caries14. The reasons for chosen dental caries: Dental caries as pointed out above is a dental disease that affects all age groups although it is more prevalent among the adolescents and young children. It is one of the major oral health problems. Dental caries is a public health issue because of its impact on individuals and the communities. Social and financial issues: Majority of the population in Nigeria suffers from poverty and the government do not subsidize any kind of dental or medical treatment for the people that is from new born to 59 years but from age 60 pays half price which can still be a problem for people in this category. In fact, dental and medical treatment does not commence until the patient pay an agreed amount but there is always an exceptional case depending on the dentist or medical practitioners discretion. Therefore, most of the populations in Nigeria are in high caries risk. This is due to the fact that some of the parents cannot afford sending their children to school while some of the children have very poor attendance record in school and in most cases leads the children to consume more of confectionery and high carbohydrate diet15. Due to poverty, most people seek for alternative treatment when they have toothache such as the traditional medicine, application of herbs, as well as fake medic ine (cheap) leaving majority of the cases untreated. Tooth loss: Dental caries is one of the major causes of tooth loss which can affect on patients eating habits, self-esteem and quality of life. Majority of the patients visit their dentist when they have explored virtually all the alternative treatment mentioned above and still be in pain which tends to be unbearable or in some cases the area is infected or inflamed. This can lead to extraction of the tooth/teeth, which eventually might lead to tooth loss replacement with removable dentures or fixed prosthesis. Due to lack of affordability of the denture by some patients leads to loss of alveolar as well as deformity. Infections: One of the sequelae of dental caries is infection due to bacteria in the cavity. Bacteria in the dental cavity secrete acids which dissolve the enamel and dentine and if untreated leads to pulpitis and subsequently periodontitis. Because so many people cannot afford orthodox dental care due to the cost of proper dental treatment some people chose alternative treatment as mentioned earlier. This can also leads to potential serious infection such as dental abscess or Ludwigs Angina which is life threatening. Although, one of the treatment is administration of antibiotics and other medications but in Nigeria contest we have to battle fake drugs as in most cases one is unable to distinguish between original and fake drugs. Need to create dental awareness: there are need to educate members of the public on how to prevent and control dental conditions as well as diseases Strep viridians seen in dental caries can cause endocarditis in cardiac patients Dental caries can form cystic legions in some patients Dental caries can cause chronic periodontitis. Dental caries is considered as a public health issue or a major problem in dental public health16 because it targets the entire population with unlimited time frame. Its socio-economic effect is great. People presents to dental clinics and hospitals when they are in severe pain and at the advanced stage of dental caries. Dental caries can occur in deciduous or permanent dentition thus affecting children as well as their parents. The cost of managing advanced dental infections is high. Being unable to identify early, people with high caries risk has also be one of the major challenges for public health. 2. The Community Oral Health Programme (COHP) was started in 1988 by the University of Ibadan in Nigeria by the Dental department. Since its inception it has become an integral part of the comprehensive Community Health Programme of the Preventive and Social Medicine (PSM) 17. The COPH main aims and objectives include prevention of oral diseases and provision of basic oral care services to communities. Major components of COPH are: School health programmes, health education programmes and on site dental care provision in hard to reach communities. Dental care has been a part of primary health care thus making very many communities disadvantaged. The health care delivery in Nigeria is such that dental health was been side-lined and the need for primary and secondary prevention of oral diseases in a developing country such as Nigeria where urbanization and westernization is creeping in. Studies carried out over the years have revealed a poor oral health status in many Nigerians18. An a rm of this programme known as the Community Dental Education Health (CODEH) has been organizing activities such as dental awareness campaigns in communities, market places and schools. Financial sponsorships have been mainly from non-governmental organizations and dental companies like Unilever and GlaxoSmithKline19. Evaluation of the programme: Evaluation is the process of assessing the possible relevance, efficiency, effectiveness as well as impact of the activities (efficacy) of a project or programme in accordance to its objectives through a systematic collection and analysis of data15, 20. It is equally very important to ascertain the quality assurance of the programme. Evaluation could be formative that is assessing the possibility of problem occurring while the programme is being developed or summative that is focusing on the impact as well as the effectiveness of the established programme21. This programme has been evaluated by observing the criteria proposed to guide evaluation in public health22 such as: Effectiveness: -this refers to the extent to which the aims and objectives are met which is to create dental awareness and promote oral health care. Also identify issues and questions of concern to stakeholders. Acceptability: to check if people are satisfied with the programme both the targeted and non-targeted population. Appropriateness: this is the importance of the programme which to reduce the prevalence of dental caries and promote oral health care. Equity: equal provision for equal needs for every individual Efficiency: this to ensure that results are achieved in most economical way and if the resources put into the programme is justified. Before the evaluation, decision on the kind of information that is needed is taken. To ensure that relevant data are gathered at the appropriate time, an eight-stage framework for evaluation of health promotion interventions proposed by Rootman et al in 200123 was adopted. These stages are Describing the programme, as well as clarifying the aims and objectives Identifying the issues and fears of stakeholders Designing of information-gathering process like questionnaire, records of behaviour change such as plaque scores, indices, documented record on dental caries rate (this was achieved with the help of dentists and hygienist in the allocated areas of the programme) also question and answer session with patient or during the dental awareness campaign. Collecting data Analysing data Make recommendations publish findings Take action or implementation Evaluation is an empowering experience which should involve all stakeholders. Although, evaluation of this dental awareness and oral care promotion is challenging as there are complex, context-specific programme which also focus on the socioeconomic and environmental determinants of well-being. Determine of outcomes: the outcome of the programme is influenced by the timing of the evaluation. The outcome of this programme after assessing the effects of intervention can be said to be immediate (impact), intermediate and long-term for some patients. Dental awareness and Oral health care programme had the following effects: Improves peoples knowledge and perception about oral health care Improve the oral health care of the communities in the programme Improve the oral health care and awareness among school children It motivates patients that are afraid of visiting dentist It motivates and encourage most of the participants to be going for regular check-up Impact evaluation was inculcated into the programme as the stage ends. This is the stage where the public worker or oral health educator includes review of the programme at the last session. The intermediate and long-term evaluation involves assessment for longer effect. This was ascertained by comparing the participant oral health related behaviour before and after the programme but in most cases after a year some participants discontinue from the programme due to death or loss of interest. Effectiveness of the evaluation: the evaluation was effective as it shows that the aims and objectives of the programme were met. For instance, the aims and objectives for Community Oral Health Programme (COHP) are prevention of oral diseases and provision of basic oral care services to the communities while the Community Dental Educational Health programme (CODEH) is to organise dental awareness campaign in the communities, market places and schools. This shows that the programme is a success and dental team as well as all the workers efforts in the programme are worthwhile. 3. Key elements in the success or failure of the programme: There have been elements and factors that have led to the success and failure in some aspects of the programme. Communication: good communication network between the public health teams, from dentists to their patients and from oral health educators to varieties of patients or the public is paramount to the success of the programme. It is important to make patients feel at ease and demystify the fear of visiting the dentist by answering their questions clearly. Communication can take place at two levels: cognitive (understanding) and emotional (which relates feelings) which is very important when treating a patient7. Effective and good communication helps the patients to feel relaxed while discussing their oral health problems and devise solutions. Communication barriers: these can lead to failure of a programme. Therefore, it is always advised for professionals to identify any existent of communication barriers during the first stage of communication with the patient. These barriers could be: Social/cultural barriers which involves ethnic backgrounds, cultural/religion beliefs, social class, sex and age Limited receptiveness of patients due to mental health problems, pain, dementia, fear or low self esteem Negative attitude by the patients towards dental professionals due to previous bad experience or believes that they know it all. Dental professionals failing to give insufficient emphasis on dental education. Continuous dental professional development needs to be incorporated in the training for all stakeholders involved in the implementation of the COHP programme. Contradictory messages of oral health care to patients from other health professionals leaving the patients confused as well as use of some dental jargons by the dental professionals to the patients. Strategic planning and evaluation of the programme: planning oral health strategy need to be permissible within the political and policy constraints of Nigeria government. This can lead the programme to success by being more productive and effective on what can be implemented in promoting dental awareness and oral health care such as: Oral health needs assessment: this is to assess unmet dental health needs in a systematic approach to ensure that the public health service uses its resources to promote and improve the dental health of the population. The information gathered for the assessment does not only based on DMF data but also from other sources like data from oral health determinants, caries prevalence, prevalence due to toothache, public demand, existence of dental services as well as policy development14. These information gather will build a focus in monitoring the rate of dental caries which will be useful at the national level during planning dental health educational programmes, future demand and utilization of oral health organisation and financing. It will help plan strategies to improve oral health care of the people through public health interventions. Monitor services provided by the dental team and the extent in which the strategies have improved the oral health of the population after the imple mentation of public health interventions as well as changes to the services. Resources and Support: this is to ascertain from the dental budget the fund available for oral health services and promotion to meet with demand and supply of the population as well as educational programme is very essential. As this will help facilitate the programme, involving experienced and trained public health professional, build and equip dental services and the outreach units with modern equipment if needed as well as developing professional network between the program and community8. Although, in some cases professional barriers can be encountered leading to failure whereby the local dentists does not comply with strategy due to threats on their private dental service business or if their employment terms and conditions are affected. Evaluation: this is an effective way of interventions in a programme, providing feedback to both participants and other part of the team as well as the stakeholders; ensure that appropriate use of resources and other guidelines are followed. During planning of the programme, the programme is evaluated to assess how strategy was implemented and at the end of the programme, evaluation is used to determine what has been achieved. Oral health preventive promotion: there are two ways to achieve this through clinical and public health preventive approach Clinical preventive approach: this approach depends on the proficiency and skill of the dentist also this takes place in dental clinics whereby chair-side oral health educational counselling is given to the patients after the administration of one or two clinical preventive agents are used for instance topical fluorides and fissure sealants. This approach has some down falls such as limited coverage of the population, it can be very expensive leading to increase in health inequalities, less community involvement, in some cases fail to pin-point the causes of poor oral health and can easily leads to conflicting messages. Public health preventive approach: this approach stress on the determinants of health for instance stipulates the attributes of oral health problems as shown in Fig. 1 below illustrating the impact of economic, political, environmental conditions to oral health, not to mention peoples lifestyle which is under the social and community context, although some oral health related behaviour can be influenced by some of the social factors depending on individuals, educating patients through oral health educators, dentists and other trained dental professionals. Oral health education is the one of the channels of promoting oral and promote equity and lessen the rate of health inequalities, be in partnership with various agencies and sectors to achieve their goals, creating dental awareness, increasing people knowledge and getting them involved in self-care. C:UsersAmakaDocumentsimg057.jpg Fig. 1 Diagram of Social determinants of oral health15 Oral health care outreach and information centre: this is preventive dental unit where oral health education can be given to individuals or small groups. This is an avenue whereby the dental public health team or oral health educators motivates, communicate also establish friendly and informal relationship with the patients. This kind of preventive treatment can be a success or failure of the programme depending on the patient and staff cooperation. Therefore, it will be wise to evaluate each teaching sessions by using question and answer session with patients and questionnaire on the performance of the educator. The patient feedback should be used to assess the progress of the unit. In Nigeria, majority of preventive dental units in public and private sectors are located in urban areas where most of the dentists are practising. Leaving those in rural areas with minimal or no access to modern dental treatment. 4. Recommendations for the future of the programme: Nigeria government should fund dental fissure sealant for children in the following categories: mentally or physically handicapped, those with nursing or bottle caries as well as those who have primary and first molars. Dentists should be able to clinically give treatment or advice to the patients without language barriers. This implies that there should be available provision a translator if the need arise. Both systematically and topically administered fluoride should be made available and affordable to the population for instance drinking water, salt, milk and use of fluoride toothpaste. Bearing in mind that, some part of Northern Nigeria is endemic of dental fluorosis due to relative high fluoride ingestion through drinking water14. The clinicians should be ready to adapt to the culture of the people and note the cultural differences for instance some cultures or religion forbids a male doctor or nurse to treat a female patient which applies to oral health care. Ability to in cooperate dental health care awareness into schools Public health workers should endeavour to identify children with high caries risk status More oral health awareness should be created as well as dietary education for parents and children. Highlighting on the need to reduce sugar intake and promote consumption of sugar free both in medications and drinks, fruits and vegetables as well as the need for good self oral hygiene practice It has been proven that most parents bring their children to clinics during holiday therefore will recommend that most dental clinics should be school led that is opening till late. Regular dental check-ups should be encouraged by the oral health team for early identification of dental problem Dental health education programmes should be conducted in the communities (both in rural and urban areas) and regularly The government should encourage the implementation of various community fluoride programmes by funding During epidemiological studies of dental caries, DMF index should always be used All Nigeria dentists should also adopt advances methods of diagnosing dental caries which should be considered when recording and reporting caries in future and ensure that this does not affect historical and international comparisons15.